Sections

Introduction

Nano Technologies

Hypersonic Weapons

References

Introduction

Cutting edge technologies whose manifestation on the battlefield, real or virtual, is expected to have a significant impact on the nature of warfare, are often referred to as disruptive military technologies. This three-part series attempts to examine whether India is sufficiently geared up to leverage these niche technologies for building up our comprehensive military power in tune with our geopolitical aspirations. In the first part, a classification of disruptive military technologies based on their expected impact on future warfare was presented, and four key technologies were shortlisted for taking a deeper look. Thereafter, the global R&D status of AI & robotics and quantum technologies was outlined.

This part gives an insight into some of the important military applications as well as the status of global research for nano and hypersonic weapons technologies, and the efforts being made by India towards their development.

Nano Technologies

Military Applications

Nanoscience is the study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales, where properties differ significantly from those at a larger scale, while Nanotechnologies are the design, characterization, production and application of structures, devices and systems by controlling their shape and size at nanometre scale [1]. There is a wide range of technologies covered under this term, across multiple disciplines such as medicine, information technology, energy, materials, food and defence. In the coming decades, nanotechnologies will progress far enough to result in brain-machine interfaces for remote control of military platforms and robotic systems. Military applications of nanotechnology which are currently the focus of research may be summarized under the following four categories [2]:-

• Materials Based Applications. Nanotechnology enables high strength, durable, and active materials which, in the form of nanostructures and nanocomposites, may be used for smart fabrics, small nano and micro sensors and more agile and resilient military platforms, such as light armoured vehicles, tanks, fighter jets, and micro-unmanned air vehicles.
• ICT Applications. Nanotechnology can enable enhanced capabilities in a network centric warfare scenario, using applications such as nano radio frequency identification devices (RFIDs), micro audio and video recording devices and biometric devices for secured access.
• Energy and Bio-Based Applications. Wearable electric power and nano-bio fusion may enable micro power systems for sensor systems in combat suits as well as for unattended sensors; nano-medicine applications such as targeted drug delivery; and smart biocompatible implants for administering basic first aid, etc.
• Applications in Support of Unmanned Operations. Nanotechnology could enable the development of nano and micro robots, including lethal autonomous weapon systems; and nano and micro sensors which may be used, for instance, for detecting the presence of harmful chemicals and biological agents in NBC warfare.

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United States. The National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI), established in 2001 and authorized in 2003 in the 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act, is a U.S. Government R&D initiative, wherein twenty federal departments, independent agencies, and commissions work together to further nanotechnology research for the benefit of society. The President’s 2019 Budget requested nearly $1.4 billion for the NNI, bringing the cumulative total to US $27 billion since its inception in 2001 [3]. Numerous organizations within DoD are involved in nanotechnology research and development including: Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Army Engineering R&D Centre, Army Research Laboratory, Army Research Office, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, Office of the Director Defense Research & Engineering, Defense Threat Reduction Agency, and Office of Naval Research. DOD considers nanotechnology to have the potential to contribute to the warfighting capabilities of the nation. Ongoing and planned DOD activities supports research and development across a broad range of nanotechnology-enabled applications, devices, and systems [4]. The Army is collaborating with small business and academia to grow two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials for high-performance RF transistors, quantum-enhanced motion sensing for possible applications in nuclear sensing, amongst others. Air Force researchers, in collaboration with industry, are carrying out nanotechnology research for potential applications in ISR, directed energy devices and optical computing [5].

China. The CMC and the PLA have identified nanotechnology as a key transformational military technology, and have invested heavily in this area. In 2006, the Chinese government announced its Medium and Long-term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), which identified nanotechnology as a very promising area that could give China a chance for leap-forward development. Till 2016 China’s Nanoscience Research program invested about 1.0 billion RMB to support a large number of nanotechnology projects [6]. The Chinese Academy of Science (CAS) is playing a major role in advancing nanotechnology based research for military modernization. In addition, several state-level nanotechnology R&D bases have been established. Out of the world’s top 100 institutions in nanoscience research last year, China had 33 and the US had 30. The number of high-quality Chinese nanoscience papers grew from around 1,300 in 2012 to over 4,100 last year, overtaking the United States (which published 4000 papers) for the first time as the global leader in high-quality nanoscience research output [7].

The Indian Context

Government Initiatives. The potential of nanotechnology was realized by Government of India as early as the year 2001 when Nanoscience and Technology Initiative (NSTI) was launched as a mission mode program in the 10th Five Year Plan (2002-2007) with a budget of approximately 60 million rupees, with the Department of Science and Technology (DST) as the nodal agency. In 2007, the Government of India launched the Mission on Nano Science and Technology (Nano Mission), and based on its success, approved its continuation as Phase-II during the 12th Plan period with an allocation of Rs. 650 crore. The Nano Missions objectives include promotion of basic research, infrastructure development, development of technology and applications and human resource development in the field of nanotechnology. The program is steered by the Nano Mission Council at apex level whereas technical programs are guided by two advisory groups: The Nano Science Advisory Group (NSAG) and the Nano Applications and Technical Advisory Group (NATAG) [8].

Research Institutions. Significant contribution is being made by other government departments including the DRDO to harness the potential of nanotechnology. DRDO is currently pursuing nanotechnology research in 30 of its laboratories for defence applications, in areas such as sensors, high-energy applications, stealth and camouflage, Nuclear, Biological and Chemical (NBC) attack protection devices, structural applications, nano-electronics, and characterization. Other government organizations such as Council of Scientific and Industrial research (CSIR), Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Department of Information Technology (DIT), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF), Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) and Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) are also engaged in funding and policy formulation. Agencies such as National Research Development Corporation (NDRC), Global Initiative and Technological Alliance (GITA) and National Manufacturing Competitive Council (NMCC) are also extending support to research agencies to translate the innovations into applications. As per Nano Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard, approximately 166,000 nano-articles were indexed in the Web of Science (WoS) in 2018, and China, the United States, and India were the three leading countries in the publication of these articles, although India’s contributions were less than a fourth of articles by China [9].

Armed Forces. As is the case for quantum technology, notwithstanding the fact that DRDO is working on several nanotechnology research areas, there are no known nanotechnology projects which are being actively pursued by the three Services.

Thus, while India is one of the leading players on the world stage as regards research in nanotechnologies, it needs to redouble its efforts if it intends to catch up with the fast pace of development in China, especially in the defence applications of this important technology.

Hypersonic Weapons

Technology Overview

Hypersonic weapons incorporate the speed of a ballistic missile with the manoeuvring capabilities of a cruise missile. Hypersonic weapons refer to weapons that travel faster than Mach 5 and have the capability to manoeuvre during the entire flight, which is their main advantage, since it makes it much harder to track them.

There are two main design options: tactical boost glide and scramjet systems. In a boost glide system, a rocket accelerates its payload to high speeds. The payload then separates from the rocket and glides unpowered to its destination. Scramjet technology uses a booster to reach cruising speeds. The scramjet engine is designed to compress the high-velocity, incoming air before combustion. This technology, also called “air breathing”, renders a highly efficient engine at hypersonic speeds.

Hypersonic vehicles typically consist of a Supersonic Combustion Ramjet, or Scramjet propulsion system to enable such high speeds. A Scramjet engine is an engine that uses “air breathing” technology. This means that the engine collects oxygen from the atmosphere as it is traveling and mixes the oxygen with its hydrogen fuel, creating the combustion needed for hypersonic travel. This is different from a traditional ramjet, which carries liquid oxygen as fuel, making the missile heavier.

For a scramjet to work, the air traveling into the engine must be at supersonic speed, so that oxygen in the air is properly condensed to effectively combust with the hydrogen mix. To reach supersonic speed, the vessel is usually launched once the craft reaches proper speed and altitude, after which it can work as a scramjet.

While conventional ballistic missiles are launched at steep trajectories that inhibit speed during the high friction of launch and re-entry, hypersonic missiles glide atop the atmosphere at the edge of space while engaging specialized jet engines to perpetually accelerate up to hypersonic speeds.

This ability to travel at ultra-high velocity is the primary appeal of hypersonic missiles, because it extends their range and allows them to bypass modern layered missile defenses. More importantly, hypersonic missiles are also capable of manoeuvring in flight, allowing them to evade missile defense tracking systems and interceptors. This is in contrast to conventional ballistic missiles, which descend through the atmosphere on a predictable trajectory that can be tracked and intercepted by modern missile defense systems.

The kinetic energy released on impact makes hypersonic missiles extremely destructive. Even without a warhead, if such a missile coming in at speeds above Mach 5 were to hit the deck of a supercarrier, it might not sink it, but it would be a mission kill. However, targeting something as specific as a carrier is exceptionally complex, and much of the challenge of hypersonic missile development is to actually control cruise missiles well enough to achieve a sufficient degree of accuracy [10].

Hypersonic Arms Race

Currently, the United States, China, and Russia are leading the development of hypersonic missiles that can deliver various types of payloads. Notably, the United States is focusing only on conventional payloads, while China and Russia are developing both conventional and nuclear delivery methods, as per open domain information. In addition, India, France, Australia, Japan and the EU all have active military/ civilian hypersonic research programs underway.

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Russia. In March 2018, Russian President Vladimir Putin premiered and promoted the country’s new hypersonic weapons, claiming that the six new prototype weapons unveiled would be ready for battle in 2020 [11]. Kinzhal is a high-precision hypersonic aircraft missile system, which is capable of delivering nuclear and conventional warheads up to a range of over 2,000-km. It can be carried by the Su-34 long-range strike fighter as well as the Backfire bomber. A smaller version of the Kinzhal is planned to be carried by the Su-57 fighter aircraft. In addition, the first regiment of ICBMs equipped with Avangard hypersonic glide vehicles, capable of a two-megaton warhead, became operational in Dec 2019 [12].

China. China has two hypersonic surface-to-surface missiles. Firstly, the Dongfeng-17 is a Chinese solid-fuelled road-mobile short-range ballistic missile that mounts the DF-ZF Hypersonic Glide Vehicle, which has unpredictable ballistic trajectory. The DF-17, along with the DF-ZF, was officially unveiled at the China Day military parade on October 1st, 2019, making this China’s first operational hypersonic weapon systems and one of the world’s first to be put in full initial operation [13]. Though not much is known about the second missile, Xingkong-2, its one distinctive difference from DF-17 is that the former has a fairing and the latter does not, making the two very different in appearance. It may also have a different flight pattern. As per reports, Xingkong-2 is still in the trial phase and more tests are expected [14].

United States. Since the beginning of the Cold War, the United States has periodically undertaken the development of manoeuvrable hypersonic weapons, which were given up midway on facing technological hurdles. Now, being faced with ambitious programs of Russia and China, the United States is pouring billions of dollars into hypersonic research [15]. In 2018, the US Congress approved the development of an American hypersonic weapon to be operational by October 2022. The proposed defense budget of 2019 included $2.6 billion for hypersonics, and national security industry experts project that the annual budget will reach $5 billion by the middle of the next decade. In 2018, the United States Air Force contracted Lockheed Martin to develop the Air-Launched Rapid Response Weapon (ARRW), nicknamed ‘Arrow’, as well as the Hypersonic Conventional Strike Weapon (HCSW), or ‘Hacksaw’. Also, a new Space Development Agency of some 225 people has been created, tasked with putting a network of sensors in low-earth orbit that would track incoming hypersonic missiles and direct American hypersonic attacks [16, 17].

Other Nations. France too has an active hypersonics development programs, working in partnership with Russia. Australia, Japan and the European Union have either civilian or military hypersonics research underway, partly because they are still tantalized by the prospect of making super-speedy airplanes large enough to carry passengers across the globe in mere hours. But Japan’s immediate effort is aimed at making a weapon that will be ready for testing by 2025. Pakistan will take time to acquire a similar hypersonic weapon. They are currently in an economically weak position to aggressively pursue such a development programme or acquisition [18].

The Indian Context

R&D Initiatives. India is investing US$ 500 million to develop hypersonic weapons. In Jun 2019, India tested a Hypersonic Technology Development Vehicle (HSTDV) off its eastern coast. Developed by DRDO and shaped almost like a sailing ship, HSTDV was launched atop its ballistic missile Agni 1. Although the missile successfully took off from the range, the test could not be completed to demonstrate the vehicle at hypersonic speed using scramjet technology, because the Agni 1 did not reach the desired altitude for the test [19]. Regardless, the flight test is the first step towards the realization of an indigenous hypersonic vehicle. Apart from DRDO, BrahMos Aerospace (India’s joint venture with Moscow) is learnt to be developing the BrahMos-II, a hypersonic cruise missile, which is expected to get ready by 2023 [20].

Armed Forces. There is scarcely any literature available in the open domain which gives the perspective of our Armed Forces perspective on how hypersonic weapons might impinge on our existing operational strategies, and even bring about a transformation in our warfighting methodologies, as is being suggested by global literature on the subject as also by the frenetic pace of development on hypersonic weapons being undertaken by major world players. India’s Technology Projection and Capability Roadmap 2018, which is prepared by the three Services and is meant as a guide to the industry for development of military technology over the next 15 years, does not have any hypersonic weapons included in the 221 projects listed therein. All this goes to show that our Armed Forces are not viewing this potentially transformative military technology with the seriousness it deserves.

Conclusion

This second part has given a brief insight into some of the military applications of nano and hypersonic weapon technologies, and also reviewed the status of global research as well as India’s approach towards their development.

The concluding part of this three part series makes an assessment on whether India is correctly poised to adequately leverage disruptive military technologies, and then discusses how defence R&D processes could be given a boost by placing the Armed Forces at the fulcrum of India’s military industrial complex, through a process of specialisation and organisational transformation.

References

(1)     Nanoscience and Nanotechnologies: Opportunities and Uncertainties, Royal Society & The Royal Academy of Engineering, 2004, pp-5.

(2)     Sonali Agarwal, Shanker Mahto, and R C Agarwal, Strengthening the Growth of Indian Defence by Harnessing Nanotechnology – A Perspective, Defence Science Journal, Vol. 63, No. 1, Jan 2013, pp. 47-48, Accessed 28 Feb 2021.

(3)     The National Nanotechnology Initiative: Supplement to the President’s 2019 Budget, Aug 2018, Accessed 28 Feb 2021.

(4)     The Department of Defence (DOD) | Nano Website, Accessed 28 Feb 2021.

(5)     The National Nanotechnology Initiative: Supplement to the President’s 2019 Budget, pp. 32.

(6)     Haiyan Dong, Yu Gao, Patrick J. Sinko, Zaisheng Wu, Jianguo Xu, and Lee Jia, The nanotechnology race between China and USA, Materials Today, Accessed 30 Nov 2019, https://www.materialstoday.com/ nanomaterials/comment/the-nanotechnology-race-between-china-and-usa/, 12 Apr 2016.

(7)     Zhang Zhihao, Chinese Researchers Head the Field in Nanoscience, China Daily, 19 Aug 2018, Accessed 28 Feb 2021.

(8)     Sanjiv Tomar, Nanotechnology: The Emerging Field for Future Military Applications, IDSA Monograph No 48, Oct 2015, pp. 30-32, Accessed 28 Feb 2021.

(9)     Nanotechnology Publications of 2018: An Overview, Statnano, 01 Jan 2019, Accessed 28 Feb 2021.

(10)   Hypersonic Weapon Basics, Missile Defence Advocacy Alliance, Accessed 28 Feb 2021.

(11)   Kyle Mizokami, Russia’s New Hypersonic Weapon Flies at Mach 27, Popular Mechanics, 30 Dec 2019, Accessed 28 Feb 2021.

(12)   Mark B. Schneider, Russian Hypersonic Missiles Have 1 Goal (And They Might Be Unstoppable), National Interest, 11 Sep 2019, Accessed 28 Feb 2021.

(13)   DF-17, Wikipedia, Accessed 24 Jan 2020, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DF-17.

(14)   David Axe, Wait, China Has TWO Hypersonic Missiles? The National Interest, 03 Dec 2019, Accessed 28 Feb 2021.

(15)   Richard Stone, ‘National pride is at stake.’ Russia, China, United States race to build hypersonic weapons, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 08 Jan 2020, Accessed 08 Feb 2021.

(16)   Talal Husseini, The future of hypersonic weapons: defending against super-fast missiles, Air Force Technology, 09 Apr 2019, Accessed 28 Feb 2021.

(17)   Michael T Klare, An ‘Arms Race in Speed’: Hypersonic Weapons and the Changing Calculus of Battle, Arms Control Association, Jun 2019, Accessed 28 Feb 2021.

(18)   R. Jeffrey Smith, Hypersonic Missiles Are Unstoppable. And They’re Starting a New Global Arms Race, 19 Jun 2019, The New York Times Magazine, Accessed 28 Feb 2021.

(19)   Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle, Wikipedia, Accessed 28 Feb 2021.

(20)   Samran Ali, Indian Hypersonic Weapons Bring New Challenges to South Asia, South Asia Voices, 13 Sepm2019, Accessed 28 Feb 2021.